Thai Legal Glossary

A mandatory immigration requirement for foreigners staying in Thailand for 90 consecutive days. The foreigner must report their current address to immigration every 90 days. Can be done in person, by post, through an agent, or online. Late reporting incurs a THB 2,000 fine.

A person against whom criminal proceedings have been instituted, used in Thai practice from the indictment stage onwards. Under Section 28 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E. 2560 (2017) and Section 134/1 of the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934), the accused is entitled to the presumption of innocence, the right to remain silent, and the right to legal counsel at every stage of interrogation and trial. Foreign accused are additionally entitled to interpretation under CPC §13 and consular notification under Article 36 of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963).

A judgment by the court finding the accused not guilty of the charges. Under Sections 39 and 185 of the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934), an acquittal bars subsequent prosecution for the same conduct on the principle of double jeopardy (non bis in idem), although prosecutors retain a limited right of appeal under CPC §198. An acquittal does not extinguish parallel civil liability, which may be pursued separately under Civil and Commercial Code §420. Foreign defendants typically recover their surrendered passport on acquittal subject to court conditions; bail money or property is returned.

A Thai district administrative office (also called 'Amphoe'). Amphurs handle civil registrations including marriage registration, birth/death certificates, address registration (Tabien Baan), and some notarial functions. For foreigners, the Amphur is where marriages are legally registered and prenuptial agreements are filed.

A legal process to request a higher court to review a lower court's decision. Thai practice follows a three-tier structure: Court of First Instance → Court of Appeal (ศาลอุทธรณ์) → Supreme Court (ศาลฎีกา / Dika). Civil and criminal appeals are governed by the Civil Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) and Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) respectively. The Court of Appeal reviews both fact and law; the Supreme Court principally reviews questions of law and accepts further appeals subject to leave under CPC §218-§221. Appeals must usually be filed within 1 month of judgment.

The lawful detention of a person by police or other authorized officials. Arrest may be with a warrant (Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) §83) or warrantless in flagrante delicto and other narrow circumstances (CPC §78-§80). On arrest, the person must be informed of the offence charged, the right to silence, and the right to counsel (CPC §134/1). Custody is generally limited to 48 hours before the suspect must be brought before a court for remand (CPC §87). Foreign nationals may request consular notification under Article 36 of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963).

Temporary release of an accused person pending trial, typically requiring a surety. Bail is a right under Section 106 of the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) unless specific grounds for denial exist (flight risk, evidence tampering, danger to others, severity of charge). Surety forms (CPC §107) include cash deposit, chanote title deed, bank guarantee, or personal guarantee. Bail-bond companies typically charge 10-15% of the bail amount. The court may impose conditions (CPC §110) such as passport surrender, reporting requirements, or travel restrictions. Foreign defendants are commonly required to surrender their passport as a condition of release.

Board of Investment (BOI) promotion is a government incentive program that grants tax holidays, work permit facilitation, and allows 100% foreign ownership of companies in promoted business activities. Companies must apply to the BOI and meet specific criteria for their business category.

The obligation to prove allegations in court. In criminal cases, the prosecution bears the burden to prove guilt beyond reasonable doubt, anchored to the presumption of innocence under Section 29 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E. 2560 (2017). In civil cases under the Civil Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) §84-§85, the burden lies on whichever party asserts the fact in issue — typically the claimant on a balance of probabilities (preponderance) standard. Burden shifts back-and-forth as evidence is introduced. Specific statutes occasionally reverse the default rule (e.g., presumptions in consumer-protection cases).

The highest form of land title in Thailand (โฉนดที่ดิน, NS-4 series), issued under the Land Code Act B.E. 2497 (1954). Chanote provides full ownership with the right to sell, lease, mortgage, and bequeath, and is surveyed using GPS-grade cadastral measurement, making boundaries legally certain. Lesser title forms include Nor Sor 3 Gor (NS-3 Gor — confirmed possession with mapped boundary), Nor Sor 3 (NS-3 — confirmed possession), and Sor Por Kor (SPK — agricultural land reform certificate, non-transferable except by inheritance). Foreigners cannot directly hold any Thai land title under Land Code §86, though Chanote is the title type used in BOI-permitted and other exception structures.

A legal dispute between private parties involving rights, obligations, or compensation, governed by the Civil Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934). Common civil case categories include contract disputes (Civil and Commercial Code Book II), wrongful act / tort claims (CCC §420), property disputes (Land Code, CCC Book IV), family matters (CCC Book V), and inheritance (CCC §1599+). Civil cases are heard at first instance by the Civil Court (Bangkok) or provincial courts; specialised courts handle defined subject matter (Labour Court, Tax Court, Central IP and International Trade Court). The standard of proof is preponderance of the evidence; remedies include damages, specific performance, and injunctive relief.

A criminal offence that can be settled between the parties without state prosecution, typically through compensation and withdrawal of the complaint. Under Section 39 of the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934), a complainant can withdraw the complaint at any time before final judgment for compoundable offences, extinguishing prosecution. Compoundable offences include many proprietary offences (fraud Penal Code §341 if the parties resolve, theft in certain forms), private defamation (Penal Code §326-§333 between private parties), and minor assault. Non-compoundable offences (offences against the state, drug trafficking, murder) cannot be settled — see also the entry on non-compoundable-offence.

A judgment by the court finding the accused guilty of the charges, returned under Section 185 of the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934). Conviction triggers sentencing — fines, imprisonment, probation, or suspended sentences — and creates a criminal record. For foreign nationals, conviction can trigger collateral consequences including deportation under Immigration Act B.E. 2522 (1979) §54, re-entry blacklist under Immigration Bureau Order 327/2557, work-permit cancellation, and impact on future visa applications. Convictions can be appealed to the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court under CPC §198+, with leave required for the second-level appeal in many cases.

The intermediate appellate court (ศาลอุทธรณ์) reviewing decisions of the Courts of First Instance. Thailand has nine regional Courts of Appeal plus the Court of Appeal for Specialised Cases (handling IP, tax, labour, and bankruptcy appeals). Under the Civil Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) and Criminal Procedure Code, the Court of Appeal reviews both fact and law, and may affirm, reverse, or modify the lower court's decision. Appeals must be filed within 1 month from the date of the first-instance judgment (CPC §198 criminal, CivPC §229 civil). Further appeal to the Supreme Court typically requires leave from the Court of Appeal.

The trial court (ศาลชั้นต้น) where cases are first heard, evidence is presented, and initial judgments rendered. Thai first-instance courts include: the Civil Court and Criminal Court in Bangkok; the provincial courts (ศาลจังหวัด) handling most matters outside Bangkok; the District Courts (ศาลแขวง) for low-value or minor criminal matters; and specialised courts — Central Labour Court, Central Tax Court, Central Intellectual Property and International Trade Court (CIPITC), Bankruptcy Court, and the Juvenile and Family Court. Most cases originate here; appeals proceed under the Civil and Criminal Procedure Codes B.E. 2477 (1934). Filing fees and procedure vary by court type.

A legal proceeding alleging violation of criminal law, governed by the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) and substantive statutes (Penal Code B.E. 2499 (1956), special acts). Cases are initiated either by public prosecution through the Office of the Attorney General or by private complaint under CPC §28+. The investigative phase is led by police (Inquiry Officer); the prosecution phase is decided by the prosecutor; the court phase covers arraignment, evidence, witness testimony, and judgment. Standard of proof: beyond reasonable doubt. Penalties may include fines (Penal Code §28), imprisonment (§32), capital punishment in rare cases, asset forfeiture, and — for foreign defendants — deportation on conviction.

In civil cases, the party against whom a claim is brought (จำเลย); also used in criminal cases for the person formally charged. Under the Civil Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934), the civil defendant has the right to file a statement of defence (คำให้การ), counter-claims (CPC §177), and third-party complaints. The criminal defendant has constitutional rights under Section 28-§29 of the Constitution B.E. 2560 (2017): presumption of innocence, right to counsel (CPC §134/1), interpreter (CPC §13), and to confront witnesses. Foreign defendants additionally have consular notification rights under the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963 Article 36.

The forced removal of a foreign national from Thailand by immigration authorities (การเนรเทศ). Authority is found in Section 54 of the Immigration Act B.E. 2522 (1979); grounds include criminal conviction, overstay, breach of visa conditions, or designation as a 'prohibited person' under §12. Detention pending removal typically occurs at the Immigration Detention Centre (IDC, Suan Phlu, Bangkok). Appeal of the deportation order lies to the Minister of Interior. Re-entry bans are graduated by reason and length: 1-year ban for 90-day overstay up to permanent ban for 5-year overstay (Immigration Bureau Order 327/2557). Voluntary departure carries shorter bans than enforced deportation.

The lawful holding of a person in custody. Initial police detention is limited to 48 hours under Section 87 of the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934), before the suspect must be brought before a court for a remand decision. Court-authorised remand can extend in 12-day intervals up to a statutory maximum that depends on the maximum penalty for the offence (CPC §87). The Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E. 2560 (2017) §28-§29 prohibits arbitrary detention. Pre-trial detention continues until bail is granted or the case is decided. Foreign detainees can request consular contact under the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963 Article 36.

A long-stay visa introduced in 2024 for digital nomads and remote workers. Valid for 5 years with multiple entries. Each entry allows 180 days, extendable once for another 180 days. Does not require a Thai work permit for work performed for foreign employers/clients.

Material presented to the court to prove or disprove facts in issue, governed in criminal cases by the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) Part 4 (§226+) and in civil cases by the Civil Procedure Code §84-§133. Types include documentary evidence, witness testimony (under oath), physical evidence, electronic evidence (admissible under the Electronic Transactions Act B.E. 2544 (2001)), and expert opinions. Hearsay is generally inadmissible. Evidence obtained illegally may be excluded under CPC §226/1 (added 2008). Both parties have rights to disclose evidence pre-trial, examine and cross-examine witnesses, and challenge admissibility. The court ultimately weighs evidence in rendering judgment.

A document issued by a Thai bank when foreign currency is converted to Thai Baht. The FETF (also called Thor Tor 3 / ทท.3) is REQUIRED for foreigners to register condominium ownership at the Land Office. It proves that the purchase funds came from abroad, as required by the Condominium Act.

A monetary penalty imposed by the court upon conviction, governed by Section 28-§30 of the Penal Code B.E. 2499 (1956). Fines may be the sole penalty for minor offences or imposed alongside imprisonment for more serious matters. Statutory ranges are set per offence in the Penal Code and special acts (e.g., Narcotics Code B.E. 2564 (2021), Computer Crime Act B.E. 2550 (2007)). Non-payment can lead to imprisonment in lieu of fine — typically converted at THB 200-500 per day under §30. Foreign defendants pay the same fines as Thai nationals; payment is processed through the court's accounts office and receipts retained for visa/immigration enquiries.

Thailand's primary law restricting foreign ownership of businesses. The FBA (B.E. 2542 (1999)/1999) classifies businesses into three lists of restricted activities. Foreign-majority companies (>49% foreign ownership) are prohibited or require licenses for businesses on these lists. BOI promotion and Treaty of Amity (US citizens) provide exemptions.

Incarceration in a correctional facility as punishment for criminal conviction (จำคุก), governed by the Penal Code B.E. 2499 (1956) §32-§38. Sentences range from days to life imprisonment; the most serious offences (drug trafficking, murder, lèse-majesté under §112) carry life or capital punishment. Imprisonment is served in Department of Corrections facilities; foreign-national prisoners may be eligible for transfer to home country under bilateral prisoner-transfer treaties (Thailand has agreements with the US, UK, Canada, Australia, France, Germany, and others). Foreign nationals typically face deportation under Immigration Act §54 after sentence completion, with re-entry consequences.

The official decision of a court resolving the dispute before it (คำพิพากษา), governed by the Civil Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) §138-§158 and Criminal Procedure Code §185+. In criminal cases the judgment includes the verdict (guilty / not guilty / dismissed) and, on conviction, the sentence imposed. In civil cases it sets out the court's reasoning, findings of fact, and remedies (damages, specific performance, injunctive relief). Judgment is delivered orally or in writing; the official written judgment is the appealable document. Appeals are filed within 1 month from delivery (CPC §198 criminal, CivPC §229 civil). Supreme Court judgments form persuasive precedent — Dika rulings (ฎีกา).

The authority of a court to hear and decide cases. Three principal categories: territorial (where conduct occurred or property is located), subject-matter (the type of case the court is empowered to hear), and personal (over the specific parties). Thai general civil and criminal jurisdiction is set in the Civil Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) §2-§7 and Criminal Procedure Code §22. Specialised courts have exclusive subject-matter jurisdiction: Central Tax Court (tax disputes), Central IP and International Trade Court (IP and cross-border trade), Central Labour Court (employment), and the Bankruptcy Court (insolvency). The Administrative Court (Act on Establishment of Administrative Courts B.E. 2542 (1999)) hears disputes against state administrative action.

A person licensed to practise law in Thailand (ทนายความ), regulated by the Lawyers Council of Thailand (Lawyers' Act B.E. 2528 (1985)) and Bar Examination Committee. Only Thai-licensed lawyers may represent clients in Thai courts. Foreign lawyers may provide advisory services on foreign law and international transactions but must not appear in court or hold themselves out as Thai lawyers without proper licensure. Licence requirements include a Thai law degree, Thai citizenship (with limited exceptions), Bar Examination pass, and Lawyers Council registration. Foreigners should distinguish between Thai-licensed lawyers, foreign legal consultants, and notarial services lawyers (notary attorneys), each with different scope of permitted activity.

A contract granting the right to use property for a specified period, governed by Civil and Commercial Code §537-§571. Residential and commercial leases over 3 years must be registered at the Land Office (CCC §538) to be enforceable for the full term against third parties; unregistered long leases are enforceable for only 3 years between the original parties. Maximum lease term for land and buildings is 30 years (CCC §540) with renewal options available but not automatic — the marketed '30+30+30' structure is a contractual renewal commitment whose enforcement varies. Industrial leases (Industrial Estate Authority projects) may run up to 50 years under sector-specific authority. Subleasing requires the landlord's consent (CCC §544).

A criminal offence under Section 112 of the Thai Criminal Code that prohibits defaming, insulting, or threatening the King, Queen, Heir-apparent, or Regent. Punishable by 3-15 years imprisonment per offence. Each act (including social media shares) is counted as a separate offence. There is no equivalent in most Western legal systems.

A form of alternative dispute resolution (การไกล่เกลี่ย) where a neutral third party assists parties in reaching a voluntary settlement. Court-annexed mediation is governed by the Civil Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) §20 amendments and the Mediation Act B.E. 2562 (2019). Thai courts encourage mediation before and during litigation; the Court of Justice operates dedicated Mediation Centres. Out-of-court arbitration is governed separately by the Arbitration Act B.E. 2545 (2002). A successfully mediated settlement may be entered as a court judgment, becoming enforceable. Mediation is particularly common in commercial, family, and personal-injury disputes. Foreign parties may use mediation through ICDR, SIAC, or THAC channels.

A criminal offence that cannot be settled by withdrawal of complaint and must proceed through state prosecution to conclusion. The Penal Code B.E. 2499 (1956) and Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) categorise offences; the prosecutor's decision to charge is mandatory if evidence justifies and the public interest requires. Non-compoundable offences include offences against life (murder Penal Code §288), against the state (treason, lèse-majesté §112), against public order, serious narcotics offences (Narcotics Code B.E. 2564 (2021)), corruption (Anti-Corruption Act B.E. 2542 (1999)), and most offences with substantial public-interest dimensions. The victim's wishes do not extinguish prosecution. See also the entry on compoundable-offence.

A category of Thai visa for long-term stays, issued under Immigration Act B.E. 2522 (1979) §34. Sub-types include: Non-B (business / employment), Non-O (family with Thai relatives / retirement at 50+), Non-O-A (retirement applied from abroad, with insurance requirements), Non-O-X (10-year retirement programme), Non-ED (formal study or training), Non-M (media / journalism with MFA endorsement), Non-RS (research / scientific work), Non-EX (specialist work, BOI-endorsed), Non-IB (BOI investment-related). Initial visa is typically 90 days; 1-year extensions are filed at Immigration Bureau offices on Form TM7. Most categories require a work permit if employment is involved. SMART Visa, DTV, and LTR are administered separately.

Thailand's data protection law (B.E. 2562 (2019)/2019, enforced 2022), modeled on the EU's GDPR. It regulates the collection, use, and disclosure of personal data. Applies to any organization processing data of individuals in Thailand, including foreign companies. Penalties up to THB 5 million and criminal imprisonment.

The party who initiates a civil lawsuit (โจทก์) or, in private criminal prosecutions, the person bringing the complaint. In civil matters, the plaintiff bears the burden of proof on a preponderance standard under Civil Procedure Code §84-§85. In public criminal prosecutions, the Office of the Attorney General acts as the state plaintiff; private prosecutions may be brought by victims under Criminal Procedure Code §28+. Plaintiffs can join civil claims for damages with criminal prosecutions under CPC §44/1 (civil action in criminal proceedings), enabling compensation recovery alongside the conviction. Statute of limitations applies — see entry on statute-of-limitations.

A legal document authorising one person (the attorney-in-fact / agent) to act on behalf of another (the principal / donor) in legal or business matters, governed by Civil and Commercial Code §797-§832 on agency. The power can be general (broad authority) or special (limited to defined acts). For specified high-value or registered acts — Land Office transactions, court representation, vehicle transfers, certain bank operations — written form, notarisation, or registration may be required by the receiving authority. Foreign-executed powers of attorney typically require translation, notarisation in the country of origin, and legalisation at a Thai embassy or by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA Chaengwattana) before being recognised in Thailand. Powers of attorney terminate on revocation, the principal's death (CCC §831), or completion of the authorised act.

The constitutional principle that every accused person is presumed innocent until proven guilty, anchored in Section 29 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E. 2560 (2017) and reinforced in Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934). The prosecution bears the burden of proof to the standard of beyond reasonable doubt before conviction can be returned (CPC §227). Practical implications: pre-trial detention should not be punitive; accused persons can be released on bail under CPC §106; defendants need not testify and silence cannot be used against them. The presumption applies to foreign defendants on equal footing with Thai nationals — embassy notification under the Vienna Convention 1963 Article 36 is a procedural right consistent with it.

The legal process of bringing criminal charges against an accused person, governed by the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) §28+. Public prosecutions are conducted by the Office of the Attorney General (สำนักงานอัยการสูงสุด) following police investigation; private prosecutions may be brought by victims or interested persons under CPC §28 for compoundable offences and certain other categories. The prosecutor reviews the police file and decides whether to indict (CPC §142). Once indicted, the case proceeds to first-instance court. Foreign defendants face the same prosecution structure as Thai nationals; specialised divisions in the Office of the Attorney General handle cybercrime, narcotics, and economic crime cases.

Secondary legislation issued under the authority of primary statutes by the King on the advice of the Council of Ministers (พระราชกฤษฎีกา). Royal Decrees have the force of law and are commonly used to implement or supplement statutory provisions, designate tariff rates, grant tax exemptions (Revenue Code), or define administrative territory. They sit below Royal Acts (Acts of Parliament — พระราชบัญญัติ) and the Constitution in Thailand's hierarchy of laws but above Ministerial Regulations. Royal Decrees are published in the Royal Gazette (ราชกิจจานุเบกษา) to take effect. Compare with Emergency Decrees (พระราชกำหนด) issued under Constitution §172 in urgent situations, which require subsequent parliamentary approval.

The process of determining punishment upon conviction. Courts work within statutory ranges set by the Penal Code B.E. 2499 (1956) and special acts, applying aggravating circumstances (Penal Code §52+) and mitigating circumstances (§78-§79) — including confession, prior good record, voluntary restitution, and rehabilitation efforts. The Court of Justice publishes sentencing guidelines for consistency; judges retain discretion within the statutory range. Available sanctions include fines (§28), imprisonment (§32), suspended sentences (§56), probation, asset forfeiture, and capital punishment in rare cases. For foreign defendants, sentence completion is typically followed by deportation under Immigration Act B.E. 2522 (1979) §54 and a graduated re-entry ban.

Community marital property under Thai law — all assets acquired during a marriage that are not personal property (sin suan tua). Upon divorce, sin somros is divided equally (50/50) between spouses. This includes income, property, and investments acquired during marriage regardless of whose name they're in.

Personal property under Thai law — assets owned before marriage, gifts received during marriage, and items acquired through a will or inheritance. Sin suan tua remains the exclusive property of the owning spouse and is NOT divided upon divorce. A prenuptial agreement can clarify what constitutes personal vs. marital property.

The time limit within which legal proceedings must be initiated (อายุความ). Civil prescription periods are set in Civil and Commercial Code §193/1+: 10 years general default (§193/30), 5 years for service contracts and salary (§193/34), 2 years for hire of work or building (§193/33), 1 year for wrongful act claims from knowledge of the act and offender (§448). Criminal prescription is set in Penal Code §95 and runs from 1 year (very minor offences) to 20 years (most serious), with capital offences subject to longer periods. For compoundable offences a complaint must be filed within 3 months of the complainant knowing the offender (CPC §96). Foreign-element cases require careful attention to where the limitation clock runs.

The highest court in Thailand's judicial system (ศาลฎีกา), reviewing cases on appeal from the Court of Appeal. The Supreme Court principally hears questions of law; further review is by leave under Civil Procedure Code §247-§249 (civil) and Criminal Procedure Code §218-§221 (criminal). Decisions ('Dika rulings' / ฎีกา) form highly persuasive (though not strictly binding in a common-law sense) precedent and are published systematically. The Supreme Court has divisions for criminal, civil, election, political-office-holder cases, and specialised cases. Its Plenary Session decides matters of constitutional or jurisdictional significance. Foreign-litigant cases at the Supreme Court level typically involve significant commercial, family, or human-rights questions.

Security provided to guarantee performance of an obligation, most commonly used in bail proceedings under Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) §107. Forms include: cash deposit, chanote (land title deed) as collateral, bank guarantee letter, surety bond from a licensed bail-bond company (typically 10-15% non-refundable fee on the bail amount), or personal guarantee by a Thai national of standing — government officials at level C5+ are commonly accepted as personal sureties. Civil sureties (Civil and Commercial Code §680-§701) similarly back loan obligations and tenancy. Surety release follows successful case completion and compliance with all bail conditions. Foreign defendants commonly use bail-bond companies because Thai personal sureties may be unfamiliar with the foreign client.

A sentence of imprisonment that is suspended for a probation period (โทษจำคุกโดยรอลงอาญา), governed by Section 56 of the Penal Code B.E. 2499 (1956). Available for sentences of up to 5 years where the convict has no prior imprisonment record and where the court considers suspension consistent with rehabilitation. Conditions typically include refraining from further offences, reporting to a probation officer, compliance with community service or restitution, and travel limitations. If the offender complies with conditions and commits no further offences during the suspension period (typically 1-3 years), the imprisonment is not served and the conviction effectively closes. Violation revokes the suspension and triggers service of the original sentence plus any new sentence.

Thailand's household registration book (blue book for Thai citizens, yellow book for registered foreigners). Records the occupants of a residence. Foreigners with permanent residence receive a yellow Tabien Baan. The Tabien Baan is used for various administrative purposes and as proof of address.

A mandatory immigration report that landlords, hotels, and property owners must file within 24 hours of a foreign national staying at their premises. The TM.30 records the foreigner's address. Failure to file can result in fines for the property owner and complications for the foreigner at visa extensions.

A legal right to use and derive benefit from property belonging to another person. In Thailand, foreigners commonly use usufruct rights (registered at the Land Office) for houses and land they cannot own. Usufruct lasts for the lifetime of the holder and ends on death — it cannot be inherited or transferred.

The court's decision on guilt or innocence in a criminal case, or liability in a civil case, returned by the presiding judges (Thailand has no jury system). Verdicts are issued under Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) §185+ (criminal) and Civil Procedure Code §138+ (civil). The verdict is part of the written judgment (คำพิพากษา) including findings of fact, legal reasoning, and disposition (acquittal, conviction, civil liability, dismissal). Multi-judge panels at appellate level decide by majority; at first instance single-judge or three-judge panels apply depending on court level. Appeals from a verdict must be filed within 1 month from the date of issuance under CPC §198 (criminal) and CivPC §229 (civil).

Official authorisation permitting a foreign national to enter and remain in Thailand for specified purposes and duration (วีซ่า / ตรวจลงตรา), governed by the Immigration Act B.E. 2522 (1979). Categories include: Tourist Visa (single / multiple entry — up to 60 days extendable), Non-Immigrant Visa (B for business / work, ED for education, O for family / retirement, M for media), Diplomatic and Official Visas, Smart Visa (BOI-administered for skilled professionals and investors), DTV (Destination Thailand Visa) for digital workers, LTR (Long-Term Resident) for high-net-worth foreigners, and Thailand Privilege (paid long-stay programme). Most extensions are filed at Immigration Bureau offices. Visa-exempt entry is available to many nationalities for short stays. Overstay attracts daily fines and re-entry bans under Immigration Act §81.

A court order authorising specific actions by police or officials (หมาย), issued under the Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934). Types include arrest warrants (CPC §66), search warrants (CPC §92 — required for non-consensual search of dwellings), summons (CPC §50+ to compel appearance), seizure warrants for evidence and assets (CPC §85+), and detention orders. Warrants are issued by judges based on sufficient grounds shown in the application. Warrantless actions are permitted in narrow circumstances: in flagrante delicto arrests (CPC §78), public-place arrest for declared fugitives, and consent searches. Improperly executed warrant actions or warrantless actions exceeding statutory exceptions can be challenged and may render evidence inadmissible under CPC §226/1.

A person who provides testimony in court proceedings based on personal knowledge of relevant facts. Witness rules in criminal cases are set in Criminal Procedure Code B.E. 2477 (1934) §232-§239 and in civil cases under Civil Procedure Code §95+. Witnesses testify under oath; perjury is criminalised under Penal Code §177-§181. Examination follows: direct examination by the calling party, cross-examination by the opposing party, and re-direct. Expert witnesses provide opinion evidence on specialised subjects. Witness protection is available in specified categories — particularly for organised crime, narcotics, and corruption cases under the Witness Protection Act B.E. 2546 (2003). Foreign-language witnesses are entitled to interpretation under CPC §13.

Official authorisation required for foreign nationals to work in Thailand (ใบอนุญาตทำงาน), governed by the Royal Decree on Foreign Worker Management B.E. 2560 (2017) and Foreign Working Act B.E. 2551 (2008). Work permits are issued by the Department of Employment under the Ministry of Labour and tied to specific employers, positions, and work locations. Working without a permit attracts penalties including fines and possible imprisonment under §51 of the Foreign Working Act, with secondary consequences including deportation under Immigration Act §54. Work permits must be paired with an appropriate visa — typically Non-Immigrant B. Certain occupations are reserved for Thai nationals under the Royal Decree Specifying Work Prohibited for Aliens (e.g., manual labour, agriculture, hairdressing). BOI-promoted businesses and Treaty of Amity holders benefit from streamlined work-permit processes.